Thomas W. Christopher

Consulting in High Performance Computing. Training in Concurrency, Networking, and Parallelism, especially in Python and Java.

Elements of Scientific Papers and of Proposals

Here are outlines of common scientific paper and proposal formats.

One important thing that technologists often forget is the "so what?" It is important that you let the readers know why they should care.

Books referenced

Day, Robert A., How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, Second Edition, iSi Press, Philadelphia, 1983.

Henson, Kenneth T., The Art of Writing for Publication, Allyn and Bacon/A Simon & Schuster Company, Needham Heights MA 02194, 1995.

Lefferts, Robert, Getting A Grant: How to Write Successful Grant Proposals, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978.

Matkin, Ralph E. and T. F. Riggar, Persist and Publish: Helpful Hints for Academic Writing and Publishing, University Press of Colorado, 1991.

Miller, Delbert C., Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 3rd Ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. 1977.

Experimental scientific paper

This is the format I [TC] requiire for programming exercises in my classes.

According to Day and Matkin & Riggar, a paper reporting an empirical investigation has this format:

Title
Name
Institution/address
e-mail address

Abstract

(Briefly summarize what you did,
and what you observed.)

Introduction

State the theme: the problem and your approach to solving it. Tell what others have done about the problem.

Materials and Methods

Provide enough information that any competent researcher can reproduce your experiments. That is not to say that he or she can reproduce your actual code, but he or she can figure out what you did and do something equivalent.

Results

Present what you observed. Graphs are nice.

Discussion

Discuss the implications of what you observed.

Acknowledgments

Give thanks to anyone who helped you with the project (e.g. if you use some code from someone else).

References

Put in citations of any books or papers referred to.

Appendices

Here you put in your code and such. Include at least one run with a small data set to show it works.

Theoretical or Practice Article

According to Matkin & Riggar:

Title
Name
Institution/address
e-mail address

Abstract

Brief summary, 75 words or fewer.

Introduction

State the theme: the problem and your approach to solving it. Tell what others have done about the problem. State the purpose of your paper.

Topical narrative

Expand upon the topics relevant to your purpose.

Discussion

Relate your narrative to the literature of the field.

Summary and recommendations

Summarize, reach conclusions, and propose further directions for work.

Acknowledgments

Give thanks to anyone who helped you with the project .

References

Put in citations of the books and papers referred to.

Proposal Contents

According to Henson, the five essential elements of a proposal are:

1. statement of need: Why do this?
2. project objectives: What do you intend to accomplish?
3. procedures: How you intend to accomplish your objectives.
4. about you: Why you are the right one to do the job.
5. evaluation procedures: How to tell how well it works?

The Foundation Center

http://fdncenter.org/

Dissertation Proposal

Various Notes For Ph.D. Students taking the PhD Comprehensive Exam (from Dr. Martha Evens) [with comments by TC]

The Purpose of the Ph.D. Comprehensive Examination (Defense of Thesis Topic) is to convince your committee that you are attacking an important problem, that you have read enough to understand what has already been done to solve this problem, and that you have a plan of attack of your own that will lead to a significant and original contribution. Therefore the document that you give to your committee should include (in any order that you and your adviser agree is appropriate):

1. a statement of the problem and a brief explanation of its importance [The importance may be practical and economic, but for researchers, the importance is usually in usefulness to other researchers. Is it a problem that others have been working on unsuccessfully? Does it provide useful techniques? Does it confirm or refute conjectures? You will probably have to refer to other researchers' papers to make a case that your work is important.]
2. a review of the relevant literature (usually the longest part of the proposal) [This will become Chapter 2 of your dissertation.]
3. a description of your plan of attack (indicating how much you have already done)
4. a brief discussion of the significance of the proposed research that makes it clear how it differs from and goes beyond other work on the problem (often combined appropriately with the following item)
5. a summary (including a list of steps in your research plan) [The committee needs a numbered or bulleted list of "deliverables" the results you plan to achieve that will merit a Ph.D.]
6. an extensive bibliography of relevant work it is appropriate to include everything you have read, not just work you have cited in the previous section. [You might as well put them in the format required by the thesis examiner.]

The worth of a proposal is determined by the originality and the clarity of the ideas, not its length. It is strongly recommended that you attend some other Ph.D. Comprehensive Examinations before your own, so that you can get a feeling for what is expected.

How To Analyze an Article

(from Dr. C. R. Carlson)

For each article you read, prepare a brief (1-3 page) summary which

1. identifies the problem being addressed
2. identifies previous work on this problem
3. identifies the proposed research
4. describes the evaluation criteria used and the claimed results
5. identifies problems not handled by this approach.

Prepublication paper

According to Matkin & Riggar

Title
Name
Institution/address
e-mail address

Abstract

Brief summary, 75 words or fewer.

Purpose

Topic narrative

Discussion and conclusions

Recommendations, if any

Summary (may appear first)

Essay or Review paper

According to Matkin & Riggar (p. 9), an essay or review paper has these elements.

Title

Purpose

Discussion of relevant topics

Conclusions

Recommendations, if any

The Ten Most Common Errors Made in Research Proposals and Applications

• Ineligible proposal

• Failure to persuade the funder of three facts
  - What you want to do
  - Why you are qualified to carry out your research design
  - Why the topic is meaningful, of interest to the funder, and/or innovative
  

• Deadlines weren’t met

• Instructions were not followed

• Vagueness

• Lack of clarity

• Weak recommendations

• Lack of sufficient advance planning regarding funding schedule

• Budget problems

• Omitted or irrelevant supplementary materials

• Sloppy presentation

What NSF wants in a proposal

• objectives for the period of proposed work
• expected significance
• relation to long term goals of investigator's research
• relation to present state of knowledge in the field
• relation to related work in progress by investigator under other support
• relation to related work in progress elsewhere
• general plan of work, broad design and adequate description of methods and procedures
• not more than 15 pages single spaced

Contents of a social services proposal

This is from Lefferts' "Getting a Grant" . It has a social services orientation.

1. Introductory material

• basic program concept or approach
• nature & scope of the problem
• importance of significance of problem
• establish the central idea, theme, or concept; theme=problem definition+program strategy
• (can also touch on applying organization & credibility)

2. Purpose & Objectives

• Purpose 1-2 paragraphs narrative text
  • Most general, abstract statement of expected achievements and benefits of program or activities.
  • Broad goal.
• Objectives - specific statements of what will be accomplished
  • Better in list than paragraph form
  • 3-10 objectives standard
  • Link purpose to program activity
  • Action and measurable results (should be stated in terms susceptible to in some form of measurement)

3. Problem definition and need

• nature and extent of problem that necessitates program is explained and documented
• convincing reasons, logical arguments, documented evidence
• demonstrate understanding and thorough familiarity with field
• overall scope of problem, but concentrate on aspects the program will address
• If definition of the problem & its probable causes differs from from dominate definitions, this must be clearly spelled out explaining how it differs.
• qualitative & quantitative documentation
• limitations of existing programs
• evidence of demand

4. Frame of reference or rationale

• the thought behind the proposal
• the philosophy or perspective
• the assumptions
• the relevance & significance of the project
• set forth theoretical framework of any piece of research & explain all key concepts and the operational (concrete, measurable, empirical) definitions of each concept.
• state of the art, synopsis of related work, references etc.

5. Program activities.

• describe in detail each of the activities and how they will be carried out
• activities should be consistent with objectives - they describe how the objectives will be implemented and achieved
• group similar activities together
• helps to say how something will be done, in addition to what.
• may be good form to repeat objectives and describe beneath them the program activities.
• or use coverage matrix relating objective to activity
• probably longest section of proposal
• what the funder is really supporting
• complete, specific and task oriented
• use charts in addition to the narrative

6. Future plans.

• make the funding agency feel this isn't a dead end

7. Facilities

• describe facilities available and those required

8. Organizational structure, administration and staffing

• job descriptions either in narrative or list of responsibilities and qualifications

9. Timing

• Chart showing timing of activities, or PERT network

10. Evaluation

• if needed, probably final report

11. Budget

Ways of viewing projects

From the format of proposals, we observe that projects may be viewed in a variety of ways:

1) purposes, objectives, and activities

2) within the context of ideas - rationale

3) within time - timing, schedule

4) people - staffing

5) groups - organization, credibility of proposing organization

6) money - budget

7) physical environment - facilities

An Outline Guide for the Design of a Research Problem

Based on Russell L. Ackoff, The Design of Social Research (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1953). Adapted by Delbert C. Miller in Handbook of Research Design and Social Measurement, 3rd Ed. New York: David McKay Company, Inc. 1977.

1. The Problem

1. Present, clear, brief statement of the problem with concepts defined where necessary.

2. Show that the problem is limited to bounds amenable to treatment or test

2. Describe the significance of the problem with reference to one or more of the following criteria:

1. Is timely

2. Relates to a practical problem

3. Relates to a wide population

4. Relates to an influential or critical population

5. Fills a research gap

6. Permits generalization to broader principles of social interaction or general theory

7. Sharpens the definition of an important concept or relationship

8. Has many inflections for a wide range of practical problems

9. May create or improve an instrument for observing and analyzing data

10. Provides opportunity for gathering data that is restricted by the limited time available for gathering particular data

11. Provides possibility for a fruitful exploration with known techniques

3. The Theoretical Framework

1. Describe the relationship of the problem to a theoretical framework

2. Demonstrate the relationship of the problem to the previous research

3. Present alternate hypotheses considered feasible within the framework of the theory

4. The Hypotheses

1. Clearly state the hypotheses selected for the test. (Null and alternate hypothesis should be stated.)

2. Indicate the significance of test hypotheses to the advancement of research and theory.

3. Define concepts or variables (preferably in operational terms)

a. Independent and dependent variables should be distinguished from each other.

b. The scale upon which variables are to be measured (quantitative, semiquantitative, or qualitative) should be specified

5. Design of the Experiment or Inquiry

1. Describe ideal design or designs with especial attention to the control of interfering variables

2. Describe selected operational design

a. Describe stimuli, subjects, environment, and responses with the objects, events, and properties necessary for their specification.

b. Describe how control of interfering variables is achieved.

3. Specify statistical tests including dummy tables for each test.

a. Specify level of confidence desired.

6. Sampling Procedures

1. Describe experimental and control samples

a. Specify the population to which the hypotheses are relevant.

b. Explain determination of size and type of sample

2. Specify method of drawing or selecting sample.

a. Specify relative importance of Type I Error and Type II Error.

b. Estimate relative costs of the various sizes and types of samples allowed by the theory

7. Methods of Gathering Data

1. Describe measures of quantitative variables showing reliability and validity when these are known. Describe means of identifying qualitative variables.

2. Include the following in description of questionnaires or schedules, if they are used:

a. Approximate number of questions to be asked of each respondent.

b. Approximate time needed for interview

c. The schedule as it has been constructed to this time.

d. Preliminary testing of interview and results.

3. Include the following in description of interview procedure, if this is used.

a. Means of obtaining information, i.e., by direct interview, all or part by mail, telephone, or other means

b. Particular characteristics interviewers must have or special training that must be given to them.

4. Describe use to be made of pilot study, pretest, or trial run.

a. Importance of and means for coping with unavailables, refusals, and response error.

8. Working Guide

• Prepare working guide with time and budget estimates

a. Planning

b. Pilot Study and Pretests

c. Drawing sample

d. Preparing observational materials

e. Selection and training

f. Trial plan

g. Revising plans

h. Collecting data

i. Processing data

j. Preparing final report

• Estimate total work-hours and cost

9. Analysis of Results

• Specify method of analysis

  a. Use of tables, calculator, sorter, computer, etc.

  b. Use of graphic tables

  c. Specify type of tables to be constructed

10. Interpretation of Results

• Discuss how conclusions will be fed back into theory

11. Publication or Reporting Plans

• Write these according to department and graduate school requirements
• Select for journal publication the most significant aspects of the problem in succinct form (probably not in excess of fifteen typewritten pages double spaced). Follow style and format specified by the journal to which the article will be submitted.